Pompeii - Agriculture

Introduction to Roman Agriculture

By modern standards Roman agriculture was technically simple, average yields were low, transport was difficult and costly, and storage was inefficient. This limited urbanization obliged the bulk of the population to live and work on the land. Nevertheless, in the late republic and earlier Principate agriculture and urbanization developed together to levels probably not again matched until the late 18th cent. Roman agriculture broadly fits the pattern which is commonly seen as characteristic of the Mediterranean region: based on cereals, wines and olives, at the mercy of a semi‐arid climate with low and unreliable rainfall, and dominated by small farms practising a polyculture aimed principally at self‐sufficiency and safety. But two factors—the geophysical diversity of Italy (let alone of Rome's provinces), and the effects of political and social developments—led to important variations between areas and across time in the practice of agriculture.

In Rome the land seems to have been controlled by the élite, and most Romans were dependent labourers. The concept of private ownership of land had probably developed by the late 6th cent. bc, and by the later 4th cent. Rome had become a state of citizen‐smallholders. The political aim behind this development was the creation of a large conscript army of smallholders who could afford to arm themselves; as this army defeated Rome's Italian neighbours. Rome's massive overseas expansion in the 2nd and 1st cent. bc speeded agricultural developments which had already begun in the 3rd cent. The large and long‐serving armies of conquest required huge supplies of corn, wine, wool, and leather. he boom in demand for agricultural produce, and the continuous supply of cheap slave labour, encouraged the élite to expand their landholdings and to invest in market‐oriented production.

The Villa and Agriculture

The word villa was the Latin word for a rural dwelling associated with an estate, and ranging in character from functional farm to luxurious country seats. Most of the literary evidence relates to Italy and primarily describes farms run for the benefit of urban‐based proprietors, though the most opulent seaside villas of the Roman aristocracy were sometimes built solely for pleasure. the classic Italian villa, comprising a luxurious dwelling for the use of the owner on visits to the estate, the working farm buildings, and the storage buildings and barns with its aristocratic mansion, baths, slave quarters, wine and oil‐presses, piggery, substantial granary, and formal gardens. The development of villas in different regions of Italy from the 2nd cent. bc is generally equated with the rise of large slave‐run estates.

Agriculture and Pompeii

Although Pompeii suffered from being located in an area of poor summer rainfall, the proximity to Vesuvius and onshore breezes brought relief from the heat moist air and volcanic fertile soil. As a consequence there were large numbers of farms and villas in Pompeii’s hinterland. Typical excavation techniques to uncover villas is not possible given numerous eruptions of the volcano. Most finds have been accidental and 140 mostly unremarkable farmsteads have been found - by accidental discovery.

Two of the more notable finds are the Villa Pisanella and Boscoreale and The Villa Regina. At the villa Pisanella (which is now reburied) was found silver pieces (now in the Louvre), a large collection of gold coins. Also a bakery a wine press and many sunken dolia used for pressed olives, or storing grains. This villa may have belonged to the daughter of Pompeian banker Lucius Caecilius Juncundus.

The set up at the villa was impressive, although not an overly large farm building for farm production. Hot and cold running water was available at the villa. A large door in the the kitchen opened onto the stables. Near it was a stairway leading to the upper rooms. In the opposite corner was a lead reservoir standing on a masonry foundation which received water from a reservoir in the court and supplied the bath suite which was heated by means of a small furnace room off the west side of the kitchen. The bath suite itself was accessed off the north side of the kitchen and comprised an apodyterium , a tepidarium and a caldarium complete with bath basin at one and a labrum in a semi-circular recess at the other. Both the tepidarium and caldarium had hollow floors and walls. Before the site was reburied the caldarium was dismantled and transported to the Naples Museum where it was reconstructed.

The more recently discovered Villa Regina was excavated using modern techniques. The villa had a threshing floor, hay store, wine press and sunken dolias that could hold 2,500 gallons of fermenting wine. About 5 acres was under cultivation including vines, figs, apricots, olives, almonds - all densely planted. Its owners were possibly less prosperous than the Villa Pisanella but just as industrious

The majority of villas look to be have involved in wine production. More than could be consumed by the local populations. However, Pompeian wine did not have a good reputation Pliny the Elder complained that it gave him a headache. Nonetheless, wine from Pompeii and the vicinity have been traced as far as Gaul, Spain, Germany and England. The Holconian family seem to have been involved given the stampings on wine amphorae and another with Eumanchius. Although this area was a getaway from Rome most of the villas working farms rather than luxurious retreats.

The Villa of the Mysteries famous for the fresco was also a working farm and was in walking distance of the Herculaneum Gate and extensive views over the sea. The land around the villa is yet to be excavated so the extent of this farm is unknown.

Agricultural Inside the City Walls

In the 1960s it was demonstrated that many of the large ‘gardens’, particularly in the south-east of the city, were extensively cultivated. As in the villas outside, many different crops were grown at the same time Click on the image below to see one of the many large gardens near the Amphitheatre

Based on Wilhelmina Jashemski's excavation of root cavities we can estimate the degree of cultivation undertaken at Pompeii. At the House of the Ship Europa reveals that the large garden was completely cultivated. Vines, vegetables, fruit and nit trees. It is possible that this was a commercial market garden and the produce was sold from the house or at the local markets.

The Vineyard at 11.5 was found 50 animal bones and also 2,000 vine root cavities, which were planted exactly four feet apart. There was awine press and sunken dolias with a capacity of 275 gallons. Was it possible that they might have sold refreshments to spectators at the amphitheater?

A smaller vineyard was found at the Inn of Euximus. Although he brewed his own wine he also bought wine in to supplement and supply his customers. Near the Hoah gate there is another garden with many amphorae stacked outside. These would have held mostly wine but also flour or olives. The House if Amaranthus consised of two connected houses. Stacks of amphorae were found. The owners look to be wholesalers rather than direct sellers.

Other types of cultivation on a commercial scale included flower gardens to make garlands, perfumes (and potions?) - Fruit growers - Peach, pear and apricot have been found and election posters have been found from pomarii - fruit-sellers.

These are only a few examples but it does show that Pompeii lived off its hinterland and city-gardens. Mostly these producers satisfied their own needs and sold surplus to their neighbours

References

• Berry - The Complete Pompeii
• Pompeii Sites . Org