Pompeii - Religious Life

The history of Roman religion is said to begin with Varro's Human and Divine Antiquities (47 bc), of which the second half, 16 books on Divine Antiquities, codified for the first time Roman religious institutions: priests, temples, festivals, rites, and gods.

The emphasis of scholars has generally been on the public festivals and institutions. For the regal period archaeology casts some light, for example on the extent of Greek influence in the area; namely the principal festivals.

For the republic, archaeological evidence of temples, remains important especially from the mid-4th or 3rd down to the 1st cent. bc. It becomes possible to produce a diachronic history of the changes to the public cults of the city of Rome, e.g. the introduction of the cult of Magna Mater (204 bc; see Cybele; Philhellenism), the suppression of the Bacchanalia (186 bc), the creation in Italy and the provinces of Roman citizen-colonies whose religious institutions were modelled on those of Rome, and the increasing divine aura assumed by dynasts of the late republic.

The Augustan ‘restoration’ of religion there was a move to incorporate the Emperor himself into the narrative. Augustus built major new temples in the city (Apollo; Mars Ultor), which expressed his relationship to the divine. This Augustan system remained fundamental to the public religious life of Rome to the end of antiquity. The religious life of the city also became increasingly cosmopolitan under the empire, with a flourishing of associations focused on gods both Roman and foreign. Outside Rome, civic cults of the Greek east continued to offer a sense of identity to Greeks under Roman rule

Mystery Religions

A mystery religion that was not openly promulgated publicly. As well as Mithra there was Isis and her husband Osiris Isis and Demeter and Persephone. What many have these have in common is a death and a resurrection

The Cult of Mithras

Temples of many Gods in the cities that people were free to worship. It built community. It was polytheistic - you could worship many Gods. Jupiter, Juno, Mars, Minerva are the well-known Roman names for the Greek Gods. Nothing of Christianity was known

The first temples of Mithra were found in the suburbs of the Frankfurt and the Danube from Romans - may be coming from Ostia (there were sixteen temples) or some other Roman port. But the origins may go back many centuries earlier maybe from an Indian-Iranian God Mithra or the Vedic God Mitra. Mithras offered some form of salvation.

The followers of Mithra included soldiers, tax officials, freedmen. These were all middle class men (no women). May be because lower men could afford the subscriptions.

The myth of Mithra is him killing the bull. No literary sources written by the followers. There are some accounts written by Christians but they are likely to be hostile.

From what we know the ceremonies are very brutal - ordeals - connections to learning and revelations - strong connection with astrology

The Mithra would meet in caves or styled as caves and are relatively small - No more 20 -40 men and by definition would be dark. The temples people world have been used to would have been in the open air. So it might have been sinister to many which would have attracted some and out off others. There were seven steps that the followers would need up to progress through - based on astrology (seven planets) and it is possible that these steps included completing rather brutal ordeals. Although the initiations would have been voluntary. There are many pictures depicting the scenes. As you progressed through the stages you would move on from the Raven level to Lion and then Pater. These would be symbolized by Mercury, Jupiter and Saturn

The cult image Mithras killing the bull surrounded by the raven, serpent (evil) scorpion, dog (revered) - a scene of Creation (cosmos) is on view to all the followers in the temple. It is symbolic perhaps of creation but also the introduction of evil upon creation

Communal meal . There were benches are side of the temple - and dining was a common theme in this and other cult religions and Christianity itself

Mithras died out in parallel with the fall on the Roman Empire and the Roman's conversion to Christianity.

Other Mystery Religions

While Mithras and Cybele were toleratred on Pompeii other cults were also present in the town although it is difficult to know whether there were serious adherents or just for artistic purposes. For instance there is a statue of Lakshmi in the House of the Four Styles. Some evidence points to the presence of Christians and Jews but only becuase there were names such as Mary and Martha inscribed on the walls and some examples of semetic inscriptions may indicate Jewish traders. The New Testament suggest that there were Christians in nearby Puteoli. The House of the Christian Inscription is just that, a faded and incomplete inscription that does not live up to the House's billing

The Villa of the Mysteries Fresco

This villa contains a magnificent frieze in a room that would not be open to public display. It dates to the middle of the 1st C BC and cvovers three walls that shows a series of events. It is thought to be a dedication to the cult of Dionysus and that like Mithras the initiated would have to follow a series of trails and test in order to be accepted and rise to a higher rank in the cult. The scenes show a woman transitioning from girlhood to woamnhood and is interesting that woemn appear so prominaently in the scenes. It is also strange that such a great painting would not be on prominent show to visitors to the Villa given the expense of painting it.

The Temple of Isis

Egyptian cults came to Italy as a whole in the 2nd C BC. Isis had connections to the afterlife (She resurrected her husband Osiris) and for this reason Augustus was suspicious of the religon as it might undermine Roman values. Despite this it was one of the most visible religious cults in Pompeii. Ceremonies were performed twice a day at 2pm and sunrise. Rites were condicted by male priests but women could hold permission within the cult.

Private shrines to Isis may have existed in Pompeian houses. In the House of Loreius there is a painting of a shave headed Isis and statuettes ands images have been found in more than twenty homes including the House of the Moralist. But the most important evidence is the Temple of Isis. The temple consists of a large porticoed courtyard within which there were altars dedicated to Anubis and Harpocreates. The temple was newly rebuilt after the earthquake od AD62 with an inscription

Numerius Popidius Celsinus son of Numerius when the temple of Isis had collapsed in the earthquake he restored it from the ground up at his own expense. The town council in return for his generosity although he was only six years old, and elected him into their order withour the customary fee

His father was a freedman was ineligible for high office so he gained a voice through his son's position

Household Religion

Each family had their own domestic guardians with specific roles (also known as Tutelary Dieties). The Lares were the protectors of the family are normally depicted in wall paintings as youth dressed in short tunics. The Penates were also protectors ands were associated with Vesta, goddess of the hearth. See also https://www.magoism.net/2019/10/essay-private-religion-in-pompeii-an-examination-of-two-lararia-from-pompeii-by-francesca-tronetti-ph-d/

The Genius (devine spirit) was the protector of the family through the male head of the family and was worshipped on the birthday of the paterfamilias. The genius also got associated with Augustus and a libation had to be poured at all formal dinners. This is depicted in wall-paintings as a man dressed in a toga in the act of libation or sacrifice or as a serpent.

Most house had some kind of domestic shrine such as simple niche in the wall, a painting or aedicule. Sometimes there would be portable altars. Traditional offerings included pinecones, fruit or eggs and a portion of the meal would be thrown in to the flames. There was good deal of personal choice over what to worship as it was quite different from organized state cults. Images, paintings and graffiti reveal how gods were invoked on a daily basis. The most prevalent of these was Dionysis, Venus and Herakles, at least before the Roman period. After which Jupiter Junio and Minerva were popular in the public sphere even though the population continued to hold on to their local deities.

Gods and Deities Worshipped at Pompeii

The purpose of traditional Roman religion was to appease the Gods through sacrifices, prayers and dedications. There were gods for all aspects of life, as there had been in Greek towns and villages. In Pompeii there is much evidence of Rome's offical gods, the towns divine protectors and also foreign cults such as the Egyptian Isis

Most of Pompeii's temples date to after the 2nd C BC but a few date back to the 6th C. There is evidence of a Doric temple as well as that of Apollo. The Doric temple may have been dedicated to Hercules and Minerva. Hercules has strong ties to this area and Minerva has Etruscan origins. It is possible that this temple went out of use in the years after Pompeii was colonized and only remnants remained at the the time of the eruption.

The most important Roman deity in Pompeii was Venus with her temple located at Porta Marina (“Marine Gate”), and was the city’s largest sacred site. It was always thought that there was a connection between the construction of the temple and the establishment of the Roman colony in the first century B.C. However it could have initially been dedicated to a Samnite goddess Mephitis and later repurposed as a temple to Venus to honor P. Cornelius Sulla, the nephew of Pompeii’s Roman conqueror, Sulla.

The temple of Apollo or rather a sacred area next to the forum received its definitive form around the 2nd C BC. Before that it may have been a dedication to Ceres. However, the temple was refurbished with travertine stone with a limestone altar and marble and was put up at the public's expense showing the importance to the Romans of this god. Later Marcus Holconius Rufus and Gnaeus Egnatius Postumus made improvements to the temple and Lucius Sepunius Sandilianus and Marcus Herenius Epidianus domated a sundial. The temple had both Greek and Roman features - a Corinthian colonnade and high Dias and central flight of stairs.

God or Deity	Attributes	Temples in Pompeii	Built	Comments
Aesculapius	Good of healing and patron to doctors	Temple of Aesculapius	2nd C BC	Based upon discovery of statue of the God in the Temple of Jupiter Meilichios
Apollo	Greek God of archery, medicine, prophesy	Temple of Apollo	6th C BC	Wall paintings on streets and in homes
Ceres	Patron of Married Women; Nature Goddess	Possibly built over by Temple of Apollo	Unknown	Inscriptions to the Ceres have been found
Diana	Goddess of hunting	Unknown	Unknown	Bronze statue in the Temple of Apollo; paintings on shop facades; Statuette in the House of the Moralist
Dionysis	God of fertility, drinking	Temple of Dionysis at Sant' Abbondio	3c BC	Wall painting in the House of the Centenary. Statue in the Temple of Isis
Herakles	Founder of Herculaneum	Doric Temple?	6th C BC	Statuettes found at the Garden of Hercules, painting at the House of the Silver Wedding among others
Isis	Associated with resurrection	Temple of Isis	2nd c BC	Statuettes, wall paintings with Egyptian motifs
Juno	Patroness of Roman State	Capitolium	1st C BC	Wall paintings on the Via dell Abbondanza and others
Jupiter	Patron of the Roman State	Temple of Jupiter in the Forum	2nd C BC	Inscriptions to Jupiter as wall paintings and on shop facades, Via dell Abbondanza
Mars	God of War	?	?	Wall paintings in private houses
Mercury	God of Journeys	?	?	Inscriptions on wall paintings and shop facades
Minerva	Goddess of War	Capitolium	6th C BC	Marble inscription at Via dell Abbondanza
Neptune	God of the sea	Maybe near Bottaro	?	Inscription found outside the town
Venus	God of Love	Temple of Venus	1st C BC	Images, wall paintings, marble and bronze statuettes. Venus invoked in numerous graffiti

Public Religion and Temples in the Roman Period

Temples became a forceful means of emphasizing Roman power after the colonization of Pompeii. Recognition of Roman gods signalled allegience to Rome. The Temple of Jupiter was the preeminent temple in the town and was shared with the worship of Juno and Minerva and consisted of a triple Cella. After the colonization of Pompeii, it too was refurbished and transformed into a Capitolium with mosaic floors and Second Style painting There was a smaller Temple of Jupiter Meilichios (Sweet as honey) near the Large Theatre and it had an Oscan inscription.

The Temple of Venus was a favourite of Sulla and Venus became Pompeii's tutelary goddess. The temple was built on the remains of an earlier temple and itself was refurbished with marble and after the earthquake of 63AD was still in the process of being restored. The location of two other temples remains uncertain. The Temple of Ceres (patron of married women) and Temple of Neptune are yet to be found. They are possibly in an unexcavated part of the city but inscriptions to both these gods have been found.

The Imperial Cult

From the time of Alexander the Great it has been accepted that great leaders could be devine. This was initially unacceptable to Romans but in the age of Roman imperialism it became much mopre widely accepted. Although seldom officially supported, many privately funded temple and and altars were donated as a way of expressing loyalty to Rome. At Pompeii three imperial cult buildings have been identified near the in the forum.

The Temple of Augustan Fortune

This was built opposite the forum baths by duumvir Marcus Tullius who was later honored himself with a tomb outside the Stabian Gate.This cult was managed by freedmen with salve attendants and regulated by duumvirs.

The Temple of Vespasian

This is disputed but it is possible that a temple dedicated to Vespasian existed paid for by the priestness Mamia. There is a fragment of an inscription that Mamia built this temple to the genius (devine spirit) of .... This could be Augustus as Vespasian had only died a few years earlier.

Was there a Temple of Vespasian?

Vespasian promoted the idea of the Imperial Cult to legitimize the Flavian Dynasty. Titus also encouraged the practice. It in unlikely that the Temple to Vespasian would have been built during his lifetime but is it possible that it was started during the reign of Titus and was still under construction when the eruption struck Pompeii, hence the scant evidence. Archeologists believe that the temple is more likely a dedication to the cult of Augustus. However, it has already been established that there was a Temple of Augustan Fortune located near the Forum Baths and built at the beginning of the century. One finds it strange that there would be two temples dedicated to Augustus in the same town especially given that the Imperial Cult was still a new concept. (Berry P196) is convinced that this is nonetheless an Imperial Cult building so were the Pompeians playing it safe and dedicating a non-specific imperial cult building to which ever Dynasty was in power in Rome at the time?

The Sanctuary of the Public Lares (Household Gods)

The purpose of this building is unknown. It may have been intended to display statues of the imperial family. However, no inscriptions or statues have been found.

Although there are thought to be three imperial cult buildings identified in or near the Forum, only the Temple of Augustan Fortune could be associated with any certainty to the Imperial Cult. The dedicatory inscription records the benefaction of the Temple by Marcus Tullius, who built the Temple “on his own land and at his own expense”, . The inscription also indicates Tullius’s status and titles indicating that he held military office which the Emperor himself would have awarded, . The Temple also included statues of Tullius, perhaps members of his family and the Emperor Augustus. Also, inscriptions on statue bases found inside the Temple appears to confirm that this was a cult building which was administered by freedmen and slave attendants but on the authority of the duumvirs. Therefore, this information indicates that this Temple was set up under the religious ideology during the time of Augustus to honour him.

The archaeological evidence discussed above could also be related to the description by Suetonius on the voting of temples to Augustus, ie “(Augustus) would not accept such an honour, unless his name were coupled with that of Rome.” . In this case we see Augustan’s name in association with Fortuna, goddess of Chance and Luck and of great importance in the Roman religion, . On the other hand Tacitus indicates, “Augustus seemed to have superseded the worship of the gods when he wanted to have himself venerated in temples, with god-like images, by priests and ministers.” . Contradictory evidence I know, but summed up nicely by Andrew Wallace-Hadrill “ Augustus allowed cult of himself, but only outside Rome/only in conjunction with other gods/only of his “spirit” not of his person”, .

In putting both archaeological and historical evidence together, the Temple of Augustan Fortune meets the criteria which could be associated with Imperial Cult. There is not enough evidence at present to confirm or deny that either The Temple of Vespasian or The Sanctuary of the Public Lares could be associated with the Imperial Cult.

Public Participation in Religion

The Neighborhood Lares

Many shrines in the town are testement to the fact that local device spirits would look over the inhabitants of that part of town and also be a focal point for the neighborhood and display their social standing. Some of the shrines are paintings - others could be Aedicules. Some would even have a masonary altar.

Priests and Priestessess

These were men and women with high social standing and wealth. It also gave an loutlet to wealthy freedmen who were otherwise barred from office. Wealth was a necessary prerequisite as it was needed to pay for donations and other obligations would be expensive.

The Cult of Mercury and Maia

Mercury the God of journeys and his mother are commonplace images around Pompeii, particularly at shop entrances. He is usually depicted carrying a caduceus (herald's staff intertwined with serpents)) wearing a winged hat and sandals.

Dedications

One inscription on the Temple of Isis reads

Numeruis Popodius Ampliatus, the father at his own expense Another one under a statue in the temple says Lucius Caecilius Phoebus set this up in the place given by decree of the town council. Both were freedmen of prominent Pompeians.

Commentary

The Fresco at the Villa of the Mysteries

The room with the Fresco is a dining room. The Villa gives an indication that as well as being a magnificent villa in its own rights, was also a farm-house. There is a wine press room although not uncommon in a large villa may show the production of wine and food. Dionysus is the god of fertility and wine making. What better way for the owners to reflect on their success while enjoying a meal and giving thanks to their god.

So do we see in the fresco the Villa's owner (who may or may not be a priestess) a depiction of her journey from young girl to womanhood under the guidance of a watchful Dionysus? Dionysian rites were associated with women freeing themselves from suppression and whether this 'journey' is more allegorical than actual rites in Dionysian ritual it is hard to say.

I cannot find a good explanation for why this is the only fresco of this type in Pompeii. Perhaps the owner got her inspiration from outside the area and maybe hired an artist from Rome or elsewhere.

Artistically there are similar wall paintings at the so-called Villa of Poppea at nearby Oplontis. Have a look here at the website of [Oplontis Project]. A number of villas surrounding Pompeii have been excavated.

1) Brenda Longfellow quotes C. G. Jung. He states it is "a women's room, reserved for female initiation through self-discovery, and as such it functioned as an Initiation Chamber (Khan 1999, 10: Hall 1988, 10)" This echoes my understanding of the room's function.

2) It seems that the owner of the villa (a woman?) might have thought that the ritual required frescoes that seemed larger than life, to deal with the enormity of this initiation process. John Clarke states, this megalographia is an "--- exotic, highly allusive, and beautifully painted tableaux that seems(s) to speak, pulling the viewer into a drama that both begs and defies interpretation." That is the paradox of Dionysus.

3) This was a unique situation, a Dionysian ritual for women conducted in a private home outside the walls of Pompeii, not to be duplicated elsewhere.

Some including Mary Beard say that we shouldn't be too quick to put a definite function on the room because of the differing information and interpretations, not to mention the fact that at AD 79 the VoM was undergoing a fundamental transformation of its decoration and use. Therefore, we don't have a full context to judge the wall paintings by or in comparison with.

The Temple of Isis

Interesting aspects of the Temple of Isis:

Not open to public view; cult of Isis was a religion for initiates Temple had dining room, kitchen and spaces suitable for sleeping; possibly had a resident priest. Temple was the only temple in Pompeii that was fully restored by 79 AD i.e. the cult must have had many followers in town Numerius Popidius Ampliatus, who was not eligible for political office, paid for the rebuilding of the temple to give his 6-yr. old son a voice on the town council.

The cult may have been popular because it "offered" life after death The Temple was a cultural mix i.e.paintings of Isis related symbols, Egyptian memorablia, sculptures of traditional deities (Venus) Even though people in power were suspicious of the cult of Isis it became an acceptable religious option

Conclusions

Determining the exact use of any building at Pompeii is a definite challenge, especially public buildings because of the extent of repair work ongoing at AD 79. Some of the belongings and fittings within the buildings may have been damaged in the earthquake of AD 63, while other bits were removed during restoration work or following the eruption of Vesuvius. So, not all the buildings that have been previously identified as cult buildings in the forum are securely identified. This applies to the imperial cult buildings as well.

The Imperial Cult Building, and the Temple of Vespasian have been interpreted differently and the functions of the Eumachia and the so-called Comitium are debated as well. The Temple of Fortuna Augusta's definition is a little more secure based on the inscription evidence. At best, a look at the physical evidence such as statues, architectural forms and comparisons with examples in Rome and elsewhere can lead us to think that these buildings were used to honour the imperial family but that this was in addition to other possible functions.

It is interesting to speculate as to what the locals thought when shrines to Roman deities were built and replaced Samnite and Greek deities after the conquest of Pompeii in 80BC. Similarly with the development of the Cult of The Emperor one wonders whether they were genuinely enthused over the protection of their Emperor at the time or merely ambivalent. Whether the Pompeians were playing it safe, the developments across the town during the Augustan period were on a vast scale. These were carried out not only as part of Pompeii's continued redevelopment as a Roman colony but also to reflect the massive political changes under the first Emperor. They also reflect changes in the city post-AD 63 rebuilding. Like many things, building public monuments curried favour and the imperial cult was a powerful force to be reckoned with, therefore a good place to look for recognition via Pompeii - Euergetism. People also built monuments, dedicated altars and made sacrifices as times to these 'gods' when a bargaining promise made to the 'god' had to be made good.