Pompeii - Tombs and Burials

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Inhumation or Cremation?

The preference for inhumation over cremation varied according to custom and period. In Greece there were examples of people being buried in chamber tombs, stone line cist graves and spectacular beehive type tombs. Cremation could be preferred also and the spectacle of a heroic figure in the Homeric mold being created on a vast funeral pyre is a scene that sticks in the mind. If created the deceased's ashes would often be placed in urns and buried in a specially built or community tombs.

Cremations became the main way to dispose of the body with very few burials taking place. The rich became ever more lavish with the tombs they built themselves to mark their or their families' passing. The tomb of the 'baker' in Rome is a spectacular example. However, the rich were careful not to outdo the spectacular mausoleum that Augustus built for himself. The spiraling costs of these tombs was another reason why there was a move towards simpler tombs after this time.

Later on with the advent of Christianity the decline of grave goods and there was a general shift around 300 away from traditional cemeteries in favour of catacombs and burial within basilical churches.

Like many other Roman cities anyone entering Pompeii could not fail to notice all the burial tombs on the roads close to the gates of Herculaneum, Stabian and Nuceria. The inscription of the tombs call out to passers-by to read and consider the life of the person being commemorated.

The Romans did not believe in the afterlife but did believe that dead could do hard if they were not appeased and many be a reason why the tombs are located outside the gates (or an ironic representation of the deceased person's journey). Benches would be built to accommodate the passer-by and also seating for family members visiting the tomb.

The majority of tombs date from the mod-1st C but there examples of pre-colonial tombs that were simpler and contained grave-goods such as coins and jewelry.

Burial Rituals

The procedures for burial varied also according to the wealth of the owner. It is interesting to read what happened from the time death took place to the burial.

Burial for poor person:

'The body of a poor person was, after the usual ablutions, put on a bier (sandapila) and carried at night by the vespillones (carriers of corpses) to the common burial-ground'.

Burial-clubs (collegia tenuiorum) were formed by the poorer classes, from whose funds, supplied by annual contributions, a certain suma was paid to the surviving families of the members.

Wealthy Classes:

'The burials of the wealthy classes were conducted on a more splendid scale. The death was first announced to the libitinarius (an official of the temple of Venus Libitina), who inserted the name in the register of deaths'. The libitinarius furnished for payment the utensils and slaves necessary for the preparation and burial of the corpse. It was then taken from the death-bed and laid on the ground (deponere), where it was washed with hot water and annointed by the pollinctor, partly in order to take away from the terror of death, partly to stop the decomposition, because amongst well-to-do people it was kept for seven days. Clad in a toga and adorned with the richest garments, the body was placed on the lectus funebris, a bed entirely made of ivory, or at least resting on ivory legs, over which purple blakets embroidered with gold were spread. Flower and foliage adorned the bed, but not the body itself: only crowns of honour, earned during their lifetime, were deposited in the graves of dead persons, and have repeatedly been discovered there, being made of very thin gold leaf. The lectus funebris was put in the atrium of the house, with the foot end turned towards the door, and a pan with incense was placed by its side. Branches of cypress and fir-trees were fastend in front of the house as signs of mourning.

After having been exhibited for seven days, the body was buried in the forenoon, when the streets were filled with the bustle of life, and when the largest attendance of invited guests and spectators might be expected. In case the funeral was connected with public games, a herald solicited the attendance of the people. A public burial of this kind was called funus indictivum or funus publicum'. The procession was arranged in front of the house of the deceased by the dissignator, with the aid of an accensus and of one or several lictors to keep order. Ten tibicines (this was the highest number permitted by the law of the twelve tablets) opened the prcession, follwed, at least in older times, by female mourners (praeficae) singing plaintive songs in honour of the deceased.

A band of actors following served to attract and entertain the crowds; they recited passages from tragic poets with reference to the deceased, or they acted comic scenes, one amongst their number sometimes mimicking the peculiarities of the dead person. In front of the deceased, the wax masks of his ancestors were worn by persons appointed for the purpose; the historic costume of the dead person, including even his insignia, had to be rendered exactly. The collateral lines of old families used to send their ancestors to the funeral of a relative, while parcenus frequently paraded images of fictitious persons. The bier was carried by the nearest relatives, or by the slaves liberated by the last will of the deceased. Other relatives, friends, and freedmen surrounded the bier in black garmets without gold ornaments. In imperial times, when the wearing of colours had become customary, white was considered mourning, at least for women.

The procession went to the Forum where the bier was set down in front of the rostra, whereat the wearers of the ancestral masks sat down on the sellae curules, and one of the relatives mounted the tribune to deliver an oration in honour of the deceased and of his ancestors whose images were present"." After the speech was over, the procession proceeded to the burial-place.

The corpse was either placed in a sarcophagus (arca, capulus) and deposited in a grave made of brick or stone, according to the older custom" Cremation is said to have been introduced by Sulla, who feared that his body would be defiled by the people. In humation in coffins (humatio), however, by no means ceased; both kinds of burial existed together, no law being made on the subjeect. Each burial-place had a separate enclosure for burning the bodies (ustrinum), private ustrina being attached to large family-graves where there was no law to prevent it. In the ustrinum the pyre (pyra, rogus) was erected, the height and decorations of which again depended upon the wealth of the family. It consisted of pieces of wood and other combustible materials, piled up in the shape of an altar, on whch the bier with the body was placed, after having been covered with balsam, incense, utensils, ornaments, or weapons. The pile was ignited by one of the nearest relative or friends, with face averted, the bystanders raising a conclamatio.

After the pile was consumed (bustum) the hot ashes were extinguished with wine, and the bones collected by the relatives (amidst acclamations to the manes of the deceased) in the folds of their mourning robes: a previous washing of the hands was, of course, not forgotten. The remains were sprinkled with milk and wine, then dried with linen, and mixed with scents, after which preparations they were enclosed in an urn (ossa condere), to be afterwards depositied in the grave-chamber. The last farewell was spoken by those present.

Urns, frequently in the form of hydriae, or (in Etruscan graves) of cinerary boxes with covers to them, are found, as also in the columbaria, and sarcophagi: they are generally made of burnt clay, travertine, marble, alabaster, porphyry or bronze. Glass urns, most protected by leaden cases of a shape similar to that of the urn are found. Three urns of this kind have been found in the grave of Naevoleia Tyche at Pompeii.

Isn't it interesting to note that it took approx. 5 lines to detail the death and burial of a poor person........

[1]

The Tombs

The inscriptions may contain the following information: Name and age of the deceased, family relationships (e.g. son of..., wife of...), social status (e.g. freedwoman of...), public offices, who donated the burial place and who paid for the funeral and/the tomb. The style of the inscriptions seems to follow a pattern and I don't think there is much variation... status, political activity, what they have achieved in live. The inscriptions were important so the living people could see what this person did and achieved.

The inscriptions don't reveal much about the deceased (except for the the inscription on the tomb of Phileros, where he complains about his friend Faustus). However, details about a person's life may be revealed by wall paintings inside a tomb and sculptures of the persons buried there.

The location of a tomb as well as the structure of the tomb itself reflect the social status of a deceased and his/her family. Because the town controlled the land outside the city gates, only the town council could grant permission to build a tomb there. The most important figures with high public offices were buried close to the city gates and their funeral as well as the tomb were paid for by public funds. In other cases, the council may have given the land and contributed toward the funeral or just given the land.

Elite Tombs

The town councils owned the land up to 30m outside the gates of the city and permission was sought to built tombs. The highest honor that could be bestowed would be to have the burial tombs paid for out of public funds. The most important tombs are Exedra tombs. They are semi-circular. They come with alters and columns. Many of these tombs were erected during the deceased's life and he/she would take great care to ensure that would be remembered in a particular way. Examples include Marcus Tullius. The tombs could also be paid for women who came from a [prominent family fro instrance the tomb of Arellia Tertulla wide of Marcus Stlaborious.

The inscriptions on the tombs would often refer to the deceased's Political career via an epitaph, or symbols or would be family epitaph

A famous tomb memorializes Gaius Vestorius Priscus. Here we can see images of a gladitorial contest. There is also a painting of a silver service - used to show wealth. Priscus died early at the age of 22 and only reached the the office of junior magistrate but the town paid 2,000 sesterces for the tomb probably in recognition of the prominent family of his mother Mulvia Prisca

Tombs could be erected to resembles temples, alters, buildings with rooms, semi-circular tombs built like benches. Often the family would eat here on the anniversary of the deceased's death or on other special days. Often there would be pipes leading to the interred urn that would be used for libation. Often the tombs would be littered with graffiti but not done in a disrespectful way


The Tombs of Freedmen

Freedmen were clearly concerned that future generations would be reminded of their their freedman status and their other achievements and sometimes even freedmen could be honored by the council who paid for their tombs. The most recognizable tombs is that of freedman Publius Vesonius Phileros. He started to build the tomb during his life but at some point he got involved in a legal dispute with one of his closest friends. He adds an inscription to the affect Phileros tomb



Stranger, if it is not so much trouble, delay for a while and you will discover what you should avoid. This man who I thought was my friend produced informers against me, and for a lawsuit was begun. I thank the gods and my innocence that I am free from all that trouble. I hope that neither the household gods nor the gods of the underworld receive the man who lied about our dealings

Phileros Inscription original

Strangely, it is possible that the third statue in tomb is his erstwhile friend, Marcus Orfellius Faustus.

Multi-Occupancy Tombs

Many tombs commemorates entire families. This is true of the Tomb of the Flavii. It dates d from 50 to 30BC and belonged to the freedmen of an early colonist. From the 1st century a house tomb can be seen especially outside the Nuceria Gate. These tombs have roofs, door and even windows. The inscriptions tend to be brief and generic. There are no niches or alters.

House tombs are a sub set of multi families-built to look like houses-mostly located outside the Nuceria Gate. Feature mosaic floors and painted walls.

No altars or niches, cremated remains buried directly into the ground Often contained unmarked Stelae. Living descendants performed regular ceremonies there. Tombs were for rich and poor people but there have not been any discoveries of tombs for slaves or children. Memorializing the dead included wall paintings, inscriptions and these were created to display status as opposed to identify personal information

Examples of Tombs

Tomb of Auius Veius

Is the 2nd tomb outside the Herculaneum gate meaning this is an example of the elite but also an 'exedra tomb', pretty impressive structure for one person. The inscription lists his achievements, he must have been popular to get military tribune.

Tomb of Caius Fabius Secundus

Is to the west of Herculaneum Gate. Front wall has several inscriptions: [C(aio) F]abio Secundo Marcia Aucta Uxor fecit et sibi et Fabiae C(ai) f(iliae) Gratinae filiae Gemellus cum Proclo hac Glyco cum Martial[e] sole calente sities h[ac] Gemellus C(a)esernin(a)e sal(ve) Monumentum

Roughly translated as -To Caius Fabius Secundus, his wife Marcia Aucta made this [tomb] for him and for herself and for 'their' daughters Fabiae and Gratinae. (It literally states for the daughters of 'Caius' but as she was his wife I have translated this as 'their')

-Gemellus with Proculus are here

-Glyco with Martial lie together in the ground here. (Maybe even 'lies passionately'!)

-Gemellus and Caesernina greet you!

-In memory,

However there appear to be no inscriptions listing any other achievements such as political or military.

Tetrapylon Tomb

The tetrapylon consists of four columns each one made up of four columns with capitals. It is of a type normally found in Syria and Africa and at Pompeii it can be found outside the Nocera Gate.


Tetrapylon Tomb

Commentary

If the burials (inhumation or cremation) took place outside the walls and so little has been excavated beyond the main gates is there a lot of evidence yet to be excavated? And would that evidence be of burials of less prosperous Romans or before that Oscans?

I can not find a picture of a Columbarium so cannot tell whether they would be inside or outside the walls of the town. Given that most people could not afford a tomb I would expect that there would be a lot of these. Maybe someone can help me out here.

I think we have a lot of material in Berry, etc on the burials of richer Pompeians as one would expect but, despite references to 'burial clubs' not much on what would be the most normal kind of burial , that of the average Pompeian.

Other Burial Chambers

Columbaria(plural). People who could not afford expensive tombs were buried under ground in massive community tombs. The Romans could buy into burial clubs. When they died their ashes would be placed in urns and placed in niches in the columbaria.

Columbaria (named for there resemblance to dovecots) are most commonly rectangular in plan, with niches disposed in regular pattern in the walls, usually in course and one above the other. Variations may take the form of corridors lined with niches. Some Columbaria were built over ground.Poor families were buried in urns in the ground and epitaphs scratched into the walls of the city or marker or gravestones in the form of a bust.




  1. All of the above came from The Romans, Their Life and Customs. E. Guhl and W. Koner
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