The Regicides

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Contents

Introduction

There were 76 judges of the High Court of Justice who ruled that Charles I of England was to be executed for the crime of treason and there were 59 men who actually signed his death warrant in 1649.

The judge John Bradshaw who tried Charles I was the first to sign warrant followed by 58 others Oliver Cromwell was third signature. News of the King's execution (January 30th 1649) reached the exiled royal family on February 4. On being told of his father's death, the young prince (now king), Charles burst into tears and fled from the room. He vowed vengeance on the men who had sent his father to his death. After his unsuccessful attempt to regain the throne by force (1650-1), Charles II retired to exile on the continent After republic failed and Charles II returned to England there was clamour for those who had been instrumental in bring Charles to court should be punished so that a line could be drawn under the interregnum.

Before Charles II set foot back in England the round up of the regicides begain. The first five men were arrested in Ireland and imprisoned. The capture included the prosecuting lawyer, John Cooke . Cromwell, Ireton and Bradshaw were already dead. The first arrest on English soil was Cromwell's old comrade and the chief architect of the King's trial, Sir Thomas Harrison.

Charles II issued the Declaration of Breda in which he promised clemency to those of his father's enemies who swore their fealty within forty days. There was, of course, an exception. There would be no clemency for those excepted by what had become a Cavalier Parliament. On 9 May 1660 Parliament began to debate the "Bill of General Pardon, Indemnity and Oblivion". Despite assurances of the King's mercy, many of the regicides saw the writing on the wall and fled England. A "death list" of seven regicides was agreed to: Harrison, Jones, Barkstead, Lisle, Scot, Holland and Saye. Three days after announcing the seven another five were added - not judges but officials of the court (including Cook) and the king's executioners. However only Harrison, Cook and Jones were in custody, the others had slipped away. By the end of May a full blown manhunt was on for those regicides still in England.

By October, the death list comprised thirty two men (23 judges and 9 officials). The trials began in October 1660. All thirty two were to be excepted from pardon. A further nineteen living regicides, who had surrendered by the 40 day deadline, were granted exception. At the end of their trials, ten were sentenced to immediate death and were executed in the barbaric manner of the time - hanging drawing and quartering.

The chief prosecutor was Solicitor General Finch was out to make a name for himself in this most famous case.

Of the Eighteen or nineteen who had fled the country about a dozen were tracked down and assassinated. Twenty-nine remained to be tried. Some were puritan zealots such as Thomas Harrison (17). Atheists like Henry Martin 31 were republicans. Other prominent defendants included Hugh Peters, Daniel Axtel, John Cooke and John Downes.

Judge was royalist ? who lived a quiet life during Oliver Cromwell's reign. Judge addressed the accused at the start of the trial King can do know wrong so ?

Thomas Harrison son of Staffordshire butcher, zealot and ruthless soldier. He signed warrant because he felt Charles 1 was responsible for the bloodshed of the Civil War, especially for his actions that led to outbreak of the 2nd Civil War. It was Harrison who called Charles that man of blood. Belonged to the Fifth Monarchy Men. He pleaded Not Guilty arguing that Charles was executed by the will of Parliament and he did what he did out of conscience of the Lord and for the good of the Commonwealth. Found guilty by Thursday and executed 36 hours later (hanged drawn and quartered). Pepys said of Harrison I went out to Charing Cross, to see Major-general Harrison hanged, drawn, and quartered; which was done there, he looking as cheerful as any man could do in that condition. He was presently cut down, and his head and heart shown to the people, at which there was great shouts of joy... Thus it was my chance to see the King beheaded at White Hall, and to see the first blood shed in revenge for the blood of the King at Charing Cross.


Henry Martin was an atheist, Republican and womanizer who would rather command a quote “regiment of whores than a regiment of horse”. He argued that he was following the appointed Parliament. He suggested that many who were sitting in the court thought and believed many of the same things. He was no martyr and pleaded for clemency. He was jailed for life

John Cooke. He was a radical and clever lawyer. It was he who wrestled with how the King could be put on trial when the King was the representation of the law and could do no wrong and was above the law. Cooke was lead prosecutor in the trial of the King. The King would not recognize the court and if he would not plead he could not tried but his lack of a response Cooke argued was an admissions on guilt “Pro confesso” Cooke at his trial said that in retrospect because there was no plea therefore there was no trial. Cooke went on to say that he was merely doing his profession and paid a fee for such. At his execution he said We are not traitors or murderers or fanatics, but true Christians and good commonwealthsmen, fixed and constant in that noble principle of preferring the universality before particularity. We fought for the public good and would have enfranchised the people and secured the welfare of the whole groaning creation, if the nation had not more delighted in servitude than in freedom - [1]. As an example to Hugh Peters who waited his turn, John Cook's end was particularly grisly. He was hanged until just conscious, cut down and his genitals cut off and dangled before his eyes. A screw (like a corkscrew) was inserted and twisted to slowly extract his intestines and these were held to the torch while Cook still lived. Normally the victim's suffering would end with the cutting out of his heart but the executioner prolonged Cook's agony until the man expired. The body was then beheaded and cleaved into 4 pieces (lengthways and horizontally) so that the four quarters could be impaled on the city gatehouse.

Hugh Peters – a firebrand American puritan preacher. Peters had fled to America during Charles 1st reign. He was famous for eve of battle sermons and was close to TC. Hugh Peters had visited Charles 1st before his trial in hope that Charles 1st would repent bur Charles 1st would not hear him. Peters was subdued during his trial but occasionally flashes of the old firebrand were glimpsed. Peters was a broken man but touched a nerve when he repeated that the Kings death was God’s judgment on Charles’ wicked reign. He denied he preached incitement to kill the King merely to see the errors of his ways.

Daniel Axtel was in command of the guard that kept order in the Parliament. He was a grocer by profession and rose to prominence during the Civil Wars. He was one of a new breed of radical soldiers demanding new rights. His defence was similar to other regicides who argues that they were not acting out of malice but doing his duty. He was hanged drawn and quartered.

John Downes had first been elected during Charles’ 1 reign, He was a more prominent businessman than he was a parliamentarian. Although he signed the warrant he did try and plead the King’s case and argues that the other commissioners should offer the King another compromise. Although originally sentenced to death it was commuted to life in prison on account of him being intimidated by the other signers of the warrant, soldiers and the general ferment of the times.

It took just over a week to try all 29 regicides and all were found guilty 10 were executed and 19 died in jail. Some died in 6 years and some like Martin survived 19 years before he went mad and died. Having dealt with the remaining English regicides, Charles unleashed a man hunt for the nineteen regicides who had evaded capture on English soil. Agents were dispatched to America and Europe, organised by a former parliamentarian, Sir George Downing (after whom Downing Street is named). His clerk, Samuel Pepys recorded the extent of Downing's intelligence network. One of Downing's agent was the beautiful female playwright, Aprha Behn who was sent to "turn" her former lover, William Scot into a spy for the King. For those surviving regicides now living on the continent or in hiding in America, they lived their lives in constant fear of assassination or kidnap. Only Edmund Ludlow lived to see Charles II's death, dying of natural causes in Switzerland in 1691


Just a few years later James II would be deposed by parliament and replaced by a Dutch prince and a new bill of rights.



Commissioners

In the order in which they signed the death warrant, the Commissioners were:

  Name At the Restoration in 1660 Notes
1. John Bradshaw, President of the Court Dead John Bradshaw.jpg Posthumous execution: disinterred, hanged at Tyburn and beheaded. The body thrown into a pit and the head placed on a spike at the end of Westminster Hall (the building where the trial of Charles I had taken place).[2]
2. Lord Grey of Groby Dead John Bradshaw.jpg Died in 1657.
3. Oliver Cromwell Dead Oliver.cromwell.jpg Posthumous execution: disinterred, hanged at Tyburn and beheaded. The body thrown into a pit and the head placed on a spike at the end of Westminster Hall (the building where the trial of Charles I had taken place).[2]
4. Edward Whalley Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Fled to North America to avoid trial. Alive but in poor health in 1674, and probably did not live long afterwards.
5. Sir Michael Livesey, 1st Baronet Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Fled to the Netherlands.
6. John Okey Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Fled to Germany, but was arrested by the English ambassador to the Netherlands, Sir George Downing. He was tried, found guilty and hanged, drawn and quartered in 1662.
7. Sir John Danvers Dead John Bradshaw.jpg Died in 1655.
8. Sir John Bourchier Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Too ill to be tried and died soon after the Restoration in 1660.
9. Henry Ireton Dead Henry ireton.jpg Posthumous execution: disinterred, hanged at Tyburn and beheaded. The body thrown into a pit and the head placed on a spike at end the of Westminster Hall (the building where the trial of Charles I had taken place).[2]
10. Sir Thomas Mauleverer, 1st Baronet Dead John Bradshaw.jpg Died 1655.
11. Sir Hardress Waller Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Fled to France; later returned and was found guilty. Sentenced to death, but the sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. Died 1666 in prison on Jersey.
12. John Blakiston Dead John Bradshaw.jpg Died 1649.
13. John Hutchinson Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Imprisoned in Sandown Castle, Kent where he died on 11 September 1664.
14. William Goffe Alive William goffe.jpg Fled to America and died in 1679.
15. Thomas Pride Dead John Bradshaw.jpg Posthumous execution ordered but not carried out.
16. Peter Temple Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Brought to trial, sentenced to death but sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. He died in the Tower of London in 1663.
17. Thomas Harrison Alive Thomas harrison.jpg First to be found guilty. Was hanged, drawn and quartered at Charing Cross on Saturday 13 October 1660. He was a leader of the Fifth Monarchists who still posed a threat to the restoration.
18. John Hewson Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Fled to Amsterdam. Died 1662.
19. Henry Smith Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Brought to trial, sentenced to death but sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. He was held in the Tower of London until 1664 and was transported to Mont Orgueil castle in Jersey. Died 1668.
20. Sir Peregrine Pelham Dead John Bradshaw.jpg Died in 1650.
21. Richard Deane Dead John Bradshaw.jpg Died in 1653. Disinterred.
22. Sir Robert Tichborne Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Brought to trial, sentenced to death but was reprieved. He spent the rest of life imprisoned in the Tower of London Died 1682.
23. Humphrey Edwards Dead John Bradshaw.jpg Died in 1658.
24. Daniel Blagrave Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Fled to Aachen, in what is now Germany. Died 1668.
25. Owen Rowe Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Brought to trial, sentenced to life imprisonment in the Tower of London where he died in December 1661.
26. William Purefoy Dead John Bradshaw.jpg Died in 1659.
27. Adrian Scroope Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Tried, found guilty: hanged, drawn and quartered at Charing Cross on Wednesday 17 October 1660.
28. James Temple Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Brought to trial, sentenced to life imprisonment on Jersey. Died 17 February 1680.[3]
29. Augustine Garland Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Brought to trial, his death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment.
30. Edmund Ludlow Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Surrendered to the Speaker of the House of Commons, and then escaped to the Canton of Bern. Died 1692.
31. Henry Marten Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Tried, found guilty of regicide, and sentenced to life imprisonment in Chepstow Castle. Died 1680.
32. Vincent Potter Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Brought to trial, he received the death sentence but died before its execution. Died either 1661 or 1662.
33. Sir William Constable, 1st Baronet Dead John Bradshaw.jpg Died in 1655 — however his body was exhumed from Westminster Abbey and reburied in a communal burial pit after the Restoration.
34. Sir Richard Ingoldsby Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Pardoned. Died 1685.
35. William Cawley Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Escaped to Switzerland. Died 1667.
36. John Barkstead Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Arrested by the English ambassador to the Netherlands Sir George Downing, extradited and executed in 1662.
37. Isaac Ewer Dead John Bradshaw.jpg Died in 1650 or 1651.
38. John Dixwell Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Believed dead in England; fled to America, where he died under an assumed name. Died 1689.
39. Valentine Walton Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Escaped to Germany after being condemned as a regicide. Died 1661.
40. Simon Mayne Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Tried and sentenced to death, he died in the Tower of London in 1661 before his appeal could be heard.
41. Thomas Horton Dead John Bradshaw.jpg Family estates confiscated. Had died 1649.
42. John Jones Maesygarnedd Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Tried, found guilty: hanged, drawn and quartered at Charing Cross on Wednesday 17 October 1660.
43. John Moore Dead John Bradshaw.jpg In 1649, fought in Ireland against the Marquess of Ormonde and became Governor of Dublin, dying of a fever there in 1650.
44. Gilbert Millington Alive John Bradshaw.jpg After Charles's death, remained member of Rump Parliament until Cromwell dissolved it. After the Restoration was himself arraigned and confessed to being "guilty in every way." Tried and sentenced to death, but sentence commuted to life imprisonment. Spent final years in Jersey and died in 1666.
45. George Fleetwood Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Brought to trial and sentenced to imprisonment in the Tower of London. He may have been transported to Tangier. Died 1672?
46. John Alured Dead John Bradshaw.jpg Died in 1651.
47. Robert Lilburne Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Elder brother of John Lilburne founder of The Levellers. Tried Tuesday 16 October 1660, sentenced to death, later commuted to life imprisonment. Died in prison in August 1665.
48. William Say Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Escaped to Switzerland. Died 1666.
49. Anthony Stapley Dead John Bradshaw.jpg Died in 1655.
50. Sir Gregory Norton, 1st Baronet Dead John Bradshaw.jpg Died 1652.
51. Thomas Challoner Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Excluded from pardon and escaped to the Continent. In 1661, he died at Middelburg in the Netherlands.
52. Thomas Wogan Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Held at York Castle until 1664 when he escaped to the Netherlands.
53. John Venn Dead John Bradshaw.jpg Died in 1650.
54. Gregory Clement Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Went into hiding, captured, tried, found guilty; and hanged, drawn and quartered at Charing Cross on Wednesday 17 October 1660.
55. John Downes Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Tried, found guilty of regicide, and sentenced to life imprisonment. Died 1666.
56. Thomas Waite Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Tried, found guilty of regicide, and sentenced to life imprisonment. Died 1668.
57. Thomas Scot Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Fled to Brussels, returned to England, was tried, found guilty; and hanged, drawn and quartered at Charing Cross on Wednesday 17 October 1660. Died unrepentant.
58. John Carew Alive John Bradshaw.jpg Joined Fifth Monarchists. Tried, found guilty; and hanged, drawn and quartered at Charing Cross on Monday 15 October 1660.
59. Miles Corbet Alive Miles corbet.jpg Fled to the Netherlands; arrested by the English ambassador to the Netherlands Sir George Downing; extradited; tried; found guilty; and was hanged, drawn and quartered on 19 April 1662.

Commissioners who did not sign

Name At the Restoration in 1660 Notes
Sir Thomas Andrewes (or Andrews) Dead Attended 3 sessions, including 27 January when the sentence was agreed upon. His name was one of 24 dead regicides who were excepted from the Indemnity and Oblivion Act on 9 June 1660 (see section XXXVIII of the act).
Francis Allen Dead Attended several session including the 27 January when the sentence was agreed upon. His name was one of 24 dead regicides who were excepted from the Indemnity and Oblivion Act on 9 June 1660 (see section XXXVIII of the act).
James Challoner (or Chaloner) Alive Brother of Thomas Challoner. He died in July 1660 from an illness caught after being imprisoned the previous year for supporting General Monck.[4]
John Dove Alive He took no part in the trial other than being present when the sentence was agreed on. At the Restoration he was contrite and, after making an abject submission to Parliament, he was allowed to depart unpunished.[5] Died 1664 or 1665.
John Fry Dead He was debarred from sitting on the High Court for heterodoxy on 26 January 1649, one day before the sentence was pronounced. His name was one of 20 dead regicides who were excepted from the Indemnity and Oblivion Act on 9 June 1660.[6] Died 1657.
Thomas Hammond Dead Attended 14 sessions. He was excepted from the Indemnity and Oblivion Act, allowing the state to confiscate the property that had belonged to him.[7]
Sir James Harington, 3rd Baronet Alive Escaped and died in exile on the European mainland in 1680. Due to an oversight in the Indemnity and Oblivion Act, although he lost his title, the baronetcy passed to the next in line on his death.
Edmond Harvey Alive Attended the King's trial and sat on the committee to prepare the final charge, but did not sign the death warrant. After the Restoration he was held in the Tower of London after being attainted for high treason[8][9] He was tried on 16 October 1660, and sentenced to life imprisonment. He died in Pendennis Castle, Cornwall, in June 1673.[10]
William Heveningham Alive Found guilty of treason but successfully petitioned for mercy and was thereafter imprisoned in Windsor Castle until his death in 1678.
Francis Lassells Alive Not excluded from the general pardon under the Indemnity and Oblivion Act, but he was ordered to pay one year's rent on his estate to Charles II and along with John Hutchinson forbidden to hold any public office. Died 1667.
Sir John Lisle Alive Escaped to Lausanne in Switzerland but was shot or stabbed by Irish Royalist James Cotter (using the alias Thomas Macdonnell) in August 1664.
Thomas Lister Alive He petitioned Parliament successfully that he was not present when the King was tried and sentenced, and although he was excluded from the Indemnity and Oblivion Act, he was merely banned for life from holding any office.[11] Died 1668.
Nicholas Love Alive Escaped to Hamburg. Died in Vevey, Switzerland in 1682.
Sir Henry Mildmay Alive Tried, stripped of his knighthood and sentenced to life imprisonment. He died before he was due to be transported to Tangier in 1664.
William Mounson, 1st Viscount Monson Alive Tried, stripped of his titles and property and imprisoned for life in the Fleet Prison where he died in 1673.
Isaac Penington Alive Sentenced to life imprisonment and died in the Tower of London in 1661.
Sir Gilbert Pickering, 1st Baronet Alive He only attended two sittings at the trial and he did not sign Charles's death warrant, so he was able to use the influence of his brother-in-law Earl of Sandwich, to secure his pardon, although he was banned for life from holding any office.[12]
Robert Wallop Alive Sentenced to life imprisonment and died in the Tower of London in 1667.
Thomas Fairfax, 3rd Lord Fairfax of Cameron Alive He refused to sign and was later given a royal pardon and was allowed to keep his titles despite his involvement as Lord General of the Parliamentarian Forces.

Associates

Name Office At the Restoration in 1660 Notes
Daniel Axtell Officer of the Guard Alive Tried, found guilty of participating in the regicide; hanged, drawn and quartered at Tyburn on Thursday 19 October 1660.
Andrew Broughton Clerk of the Court Alive Escaped to Switzerland in 1663.[13] Died 1687.
John Cooke Solicitor-General Alive Tried, found guilty of regicide; hanged, drawn and quartered at Charing Cross on Tuesday 16 October 1660.
Edward Dendy Serjeant-at-Arms Alive Escaped to Switzerland in 1663.[13]
Dr Isaac Dorislaus Assistant to the Solicitor-General Dead A distinguished scholar from the Netherlands, he was murdered in the Hague in 1649 by royalist refugees.
Francis Hacker Officer of the Guard Alive Tried, found guilty of signing the execution order; hanged at Tyburn on 19 October 1660.[14]
William Hewlett Captain in the Guard Alive Found guilty of regicide at the same trial as Daniel Axtel, but not executed with him.
Cornelius Holland Member of Council of State Alive Escaped to Lausanne, Switzerland at Restoration. Died 1671.
Hercules Huncks Officer of the Guard Alive Refused to sign the order to the executioners, which Hacker did instead. He testified against Axtel and Hacker, and was pardoned. Died 1660.
Robert Phayre Officer of the Guard Alive Refused to sign the order to the executioners. Not tried, released in 1662. Died 1682.
Hugh Peters Preacher Alive Hugh peters.jpg Tried, found guilty of inciting regicide; hanged, drawn and quartered at Charing Cross on Tuesday 16 October 1660.
Matthew Thomlinson Officer of the Guard Alive Pardoned for showing courtesy to the King and for testifying against Axtell and Hacker. Died 1681.

Commentary

Geoffrey Robinson Q.C believe that history has been unduly unkind to the King Killers. He believes they were men of principle and although the conduct of the trial of Charles would not pass muster in a 21st Century court it showed at least a tilt towards a balanced legal proceeding. In fact the court's attempt to conduct a court case based on the due process of law almost led to the whole trial unravelling when Charles refused to acknowledge the court's authority to try a sovereign king. Rex was lex! Robinson suggest that in the minds of some at least, the verdict was not preordained. John Cooke from the outset thought that the trial would lead top some reconciliation, at lat between King and Parliament and maybe Charles, himself was coming around to that conclusion but Charles always overplayed his weak hand and his arrogance lost him any supporters amongst the judges. Robinson continues to draw comparisons between the Republicans and Monarchists in terms of however bad parliament sometimes acted, this nascent democratic body acted with more semblance of fairness than had Charles had everything his own way.

Robinson then draws comparisons with the Restorations trials of the King's Killers by arguing that there was less due process that under Charles' trial and that the juries were directed to find all the defendants guilty. Given the speed of the trials this seems plausible. Less plausible is his assertion that the Glorious Revolution was no more than a regranting of just a few of the powers Parliament lost after the fall of the Republic. Nevertheless, despite a revengeful Cavalier parliament after 1660, the people nor Charles II himself were in the mood for gory public executions. After the initial hanging, drawing and quartering of the leading regicides, there was not much appetite for such a public display. Perhaps the people themselves were so compromised with switching sides to back whatever faction was in power they saw in the condemned men, themselves and may have thought 'there but for the grace of God, go I" Some may have also been aware that many were pressurized by Cromwell to sign the death warrant.

The regicides have been described as rogues and knaves while others as saintly and godly and could even be vaunted as proto-democrats. Working within that narrative Professor Ann Hughes [15] firstly focuses on the religious divide The Book of Sports - which licensed `lawful recreations' on Sundays, seemed like idolatry to Puritans for whom the Sabbath should be devoted to god's service. As a whole, Charles' religious policies looked alarmingly like popery, while the Irish Catholic rising of 1641 raised in some staunch Puritans petrifying suspicions of the king's complicity. The notion that Charles had provoked God's wrath was thus of long-standing Those such as the firebrand Hugh Peters could be viewed thus as a deeply religious, pious man profoundly disturbed by a King who seemed to turn his back on the true religion or otherwise as a religious zealot. To the republicans who signed the death warrant, Charles was tyrannical leader - reigning over an increasingly corrupt and decaying structure far from Thomas Hobbes view of king ruling by the collective and tacit consent of his people. For those republicans and soldiers they could look to the King's imposition and abuse of tax raising measures such as Ship's Money although Oliver Cromwell was forced into similar contrivances to pay the army when he later became leader. Worse still they could point to Charles' lack of remorse of the massive loss of life on both sides of the conflict. It was something that he never publicly acknowledged and it was possible that after two Civil Wars, Charles would yet again go back on any agreement and flight for the the third time for his crown. For as much as the religious protestant zealots felt that righteousness was on there side, Charles felt that he was defending his faith and 600 hundred years of monarchy. Given such a predicament could they come to any other recourse?

We should not forget that the Rump were hardly a representative parliament of the people but really a parliament doing the army's bidding. Similarly, the House of Lords had refused to go along with the trial. Little wonder then Charles could;d mock the court's apparent lack of authority to try him.

If any of regicides were rogues and knaves then they are just footnotes in history; hangers on who wanted a piece of the action rather than persons who acted through any real ideological creed, such as Axtel. The argument of whether to side with those who signed the Death Warrant mirrors the arguments in the Civil War themselves. On the one hand a King who believed in a middle of the road Anglicism, doggedly sticking to the doctrine of the divine right of kings but with a hauteur and arrogance that won few friends and on the other an opposition cobbled together of an unlikely set of allies - soldiers, republicans, parliamentarians, religious zealots - but united in their desire to rid England of its King.

The regicide is still an unpalatable act. One where simultaneously you feel revulsion at the deed and rather snobbishly believe this is very un-English way of behaving and and on the other feeling there was no other alternative given the intransigence on both sides. As such the English would rather draw a veil over this period of history, fascinating as it is. Not only were Charles and Cromwell deeply flawed and revered and hated in equal measure but so are most of the main actors of the time.

  1. ↑ http://www.historytoday.com/geoffrey-robertson/what-regicides-did-us#sthash.W9ODSaqt.dpuf
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Template:Harvnb
  3. ↑ Balleine's History Of Jersey, page 148
  4. ↑ Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Chaloner, James.
  5. ↑ Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Dove, John (d. 1664/5)
  6. ↑ Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Fry, John (c.1609–1656/7)
  7. ↑ Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Hammond, Thomas (c.1600–1658)
  8. ↑ House of Lords Journal Volume 11 7 February 1662 Attainted Persons brought to the Bar
  9. ↑ House of Commons Journal Volume 8: Executing Regicides 27 January 1662
  10. ↑ Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Harvey, Edmund (c.1601–1673)
  11. ↑ Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Lister, Thomas (1597–1668)
  12. ↑ Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Pickering, Sir Gilbert
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Template:Cite book
  14. ↑ Extracts from the transcript of the October 1660 trial and execution of 10 regicides At the end of the article there is a description of the executions. They were all hanged, drawn and quartered except for Francis Hacker who was hanged.
  15. ↑ http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/civil_war_revolution/charlesi_execution_01.shtml


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